The foreign policy of a radicalised state- the two level game of Zimbabwe's relations with the IMF (2000-2007)

The suspension of Zimbabwe from the IMF's Poverty Reduction and Growth Facility (PRGF) in 2001 has been justified as resulting from loan repayment arrears and failed macroeconomic policies. This dissertation argues that these justifications oversimplify the relationship between the Fund and Zimbabwe in the 2000s. As such, three factors are essential for a more comprehensive analysis into the country's foreign policy- the state type, the impact of bargaining between factions of different ideological underpinnings (internationalists vs. nationalists), and land reform. The socio-economic context of neocolonialism and the negative impact of the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme (ESAP) on the domestic level, and comprehensive economic sanctions on the international sphere forged a radicalised state. The Land Reform and Resettlement Programme (LRRP) became the conduit through which economic redistribution occurred and the structural cleavages it created were significant in defining the political ‘rules of the game'. We argue that foreign policy analysis of a radicalised state specifically necessitates a closer look at the symbiotic synergies between domestic bargaining and international negotiation. Through the lens of Putnam's Two Level games hypothesis, we conclude that there were four main factors that determined the country's foreign policy towards the IMF and the failure of the negotiations- there was a prioritisation of domestic political considerations over external conditionalities; there was an incompatibility of ‘win-sets' between the IMF and Zimbabwe; that comprehensive sanctions reduced the IMF's bargaining space; and domestic ideological divergence between neoliberal ‘internationalists and radical ‘nationalists' undermined the negotiations

Soyabean as an emerging crop: A baseline survey on its potential uses in a mixed smallholder farming system in Zimbabwe

A diagnostic study was conducted to determine the potential uses of the soyabean crop and its residues in on-farm research in the Mushagashe smallholder mixed farming system. Farm sizes averaged 78.5 ha ± 6.3 (se) and ranged from 16 ha to 210 ha. Arable land averaged 10.7 ha ± 0.8 (se). Maize and groundnuts were the major crops grown in the area. Soyabean had been grown in the area for the past two seasons, and 17 % of the farmers were producing the crop. A lack of inputs was the major constraint to soyabean production. Poor soil fertility also affected crop production in general. As a result, 46 % of the farmers left some land fallow. Farmers aimed at maximizing manure output for use in their fields. All farmers owned cattle and 66 % of them engaged in dairy. Poor dry season nutrition was the major limitation to cattle production. Utilizing the soyabean crop to tackle some of the farmers' constraints appeared viable. SA Jnl. Agric. Ext. Vol. 33 2004: 64-7

Improving male involvement in antenatal care in low and middle-income countries to prevent mother to child transmission of HIV: A realist review

Background: Childhood Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection occurs almost exclusively via mother to child transmission (MTCT) during pregnancy, birth, or through breastfeeding. Recent studies have shown that male involvement (MI) in antenatal care (ANC) and HIV testing, including couples voluntary counselling and testing (CVCT), increases the likelihood that women will adhere to prevention advice and comply with HIV treatment if required during their pregnancy; hence reducing the rates of MTCT of HIV. This realist review investigates how, why, when, and for whom MI in ANC works best to provide contextual advice on how MI in ANC can be best used for prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV. Methods: A realist review of existing evidence was conducted. Realist review seeks to explain how and why an intervention works, or does not work, in a given context. This was completed through the five stages of realist synthesis; Eliciting the program theory, search strategy, study selection criteria, data extraction, and data analysis and synthesis. Findings are presented as context-mechanism-outcome (CMO) configurations outlining the mechanisms that work in given contexts to give an outcome. Results: Three CMO configurations were developed. These describe that 1) Couples in monogamous relationships have higher levels of trust, commitment and security leading to increased uptake of PMTCT programs together; 2) ANC spaces that make ‘male friendly’ adaptions promote normalisation of MI in PMTCT and are more welcoming, leading to increased willingness of male partners to participate in ANC; and 3) couples and communities with higher health literacy encourage increased informed decision making, ownership, and responsibility and thus increased participation in PMTCT of HIV. Conclusions: The CMOs developed in this review give contextual advice on how one might improve ANC services to increase MI and help reduce MTCT of HIV. We propose that MI in ANC works best where couples are monogamous and trusting, where ANC spaces actively promote being a ‘male friendly space’ and where there are high levels of community education programs around MTCT

Temporal variability and spatial dynamics of CO2 and CH4 concentrations and fluxes in the Zambezi River system

Spanning over 2900 km in length and with a catchment of approximately 1.4 million km2, the Zambezi River is the fourth largest river in Africa and the largest flowing into the Indian Ocean from the African continent. Yet, there is surprisingly little or no information on carbon (C) cycling in this large river system. As part of a broader study on the riverine biogeochemistry in the Zambezi River basin, we present here mainstream dissolved CO2 and CH4 data collected during 2012 and 2013 over two climatic seasons (dry and wet) to constrain the interannual variability, seasonality and spatial heterogeneity of partial pressure of CO2 (pCO2) and CH4 concentrations and fluxes along the aquatic continuum, in relation to physico-chemical parameters (temperature, conductivity, oxygen, and pH) and various carbon pools (dissolved and particulate, organic and inorganic carbon, total alkalinity, primary production, respiration and net aquatic metabolism). Both pCO2 and CH4 variability was high, ranging from minimal values of 150 ppm and 7 nM, respectively, mainly in the two large reservoirs (the Kariba and the Cabora Bassa characterized by high pH and oxygen and low DOC), up to maximum values of 12,500 ppm and 12,130 nM, CO2 and CH4, respectively, mostly below floodplains/wetlands (low pH and oxygen levels, high DOC and POC concentrations). The interannual variability was relatively large for both CO2 and CH4 (mean pCO2: 2350 ppm in 2013 vs. 3180 ppm in 2013; mean CH4: 600 nM in 2012 vs. 1000 nM in 2013) and significantly higher (up to two fold) during wet season compared to dry season closely linked to distinct seasonal hydrological characteristics. Overall, no clear pattern was observed along the longitudinal gradient as river CO2 and CH4 concentrations are largely influenced by the presence of floodplains/wetlands, anthropogenic reservoirs or natural barriers (waterfalls/ rapids). Following closely the concentration patterns, river CO2 and CH4 mean fluxes of 3440 mg C-CO2 m-2 d-1 and 50 mg C-CH4 m-2 d-1, respectively, were well within the range of literature data for tropical river systems, while the two reservoirs were a sink of atmospheric CO2 (-240 mg C-CO2 m-2 d-1) and a low CH4 source (4 mg C-CH4 m-2 d-1)

The pervasive triad of food security, gender inequity and women\u27s health: Exploratory research from sub-Saharan Africa

Objectives: This study was designed to explore the interactions between food securing activities, health and gender equity from the perspective of rural east African women. The specific objectives were to document the critical interaction among these three issues - food security, gender inequity, women\u27s health within the context of sub-Saharan Africa; to describe the nature of this triad from the perspective of women farmers in Africa; and to propose a framework for linking available interventions to the vicious nature of this triad. Setting: In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were conducted with rural women farmers in Kwale District, Kenya and Bagamoyo District, Tanzania. Methods: A total of 12 in-depth interviews and 4 focus group discussions have been included in this analysis. Transcribed text from interviews and focus group discussions were coded and thematic conceptual matrices were developed to compare dimensions of common themes across interviews and settings. A thematic analysis was then performed and a framework developed to understand the nature of the triad and explore the potential for interventions within the interactions. Findings: The vicious cycle of increasing work, lack of time, and lack of independent decision making for women who are responsible for food production and health of their families, has health and social consequences. Food securing activities have negative health consequences for women, which are further augmented by issues of gender inequity. Conclusion: The African development community must respond by thinking of creative solutions and appropriate interventions for the empowerment of women farmers in the region to ensure their health

Evaluation of carcass performance of Matebele goats managed extensively based on the eruption of permanent incisors teeth

Matebele goats were slaughtered at different state of permanent incisors eruption 1st pair (I1 )(237records), 2nd pair (I2 )(312 records), 3rd pair (I3 )(237records), 4th pair (I4)(232 ), Broken Mouth (BM)(214) and Smooth Mouth (SM)(218) over a period of 15 years (1989- 2004) and analysed for carcass performance. Performance parameters and weight of organs as a percentage of empty body weight (EBW) containing the effects of number of permanent incisors at I1, I2, I3, I4,, BM and SM were analysed using the General Linear Models. Live weight averaged 21.57 kg ± 0.02, 27.01± 0.02 kg, 28.40± 0.02 kg, 28.88± 0.02 kg, 36.92± 0.02 kg and 37.33± 0.02 kg for goats slaughtered at I1, I2, I3, I4,,, BM and SM, respectively. There was a significant (p<0.01) difference in slaughter weight at different periods of permanent incisors teeth eruptions. The goats slaughtered at I1 and I2 had significantly heavier hot carcass mass,cold carcass mass and rib barrel than those slaughtered I3, I4,, BM and SM. The goats slaughtered at I3 had the highest dressing percentage and goats slaughtered at BM had the lowest dressing percentage (DP). For external noncarcass components, the proportion of the head did not change but it was the feet proportion that increased markedly from I1 to I3 which coincided with the decrease in pelt. The proportion of hind barrel, head and kidney fat seemed to be constant. There was a significant (p< 0.01) difference between mesenteric fat amongst teeth groups, which increased with increasing number of permanent incisors eruption representing age increase. The lower proportion of noncarcass components in I3 may have contributed to a higher DP